Research : Andrew Goodwin's Features Of Music Videos

Andrew Goodwin’s 6 Features of Music Videos

In his book Dancing in the Distraction Factory (1992) Andrew Goodwin points out characteristics and features that can be found in music videos. 

1.    Music videos demonstrate genre characteristics.

(e.g. stage performance in metal videos, dance routine for boy/girl band, aspiration in Hip Hop). 

2.    There is a relationship between lyrics and visuals. 

The lyrics are represented with images - either illustrating, amplifying or contradicting them. 

3.    There is a relationship between music and visuals. 

The tone and atmosphere of the visuals reflect that of the music - either illustrating, amplifying or contradicting. 

4.    The demands of the record label will include the need for lots of close ups of the artist and the artist may develop motifs which recur across their work (a visual style). 

5.    There is frequently reference to notion of looking (screens within screens, mirrors, stages, etc) and particularly voyeuristic treatment of the female body. 

6.    There are often intertextual reference (to films, tv programmes, other music videos etc).

(From Andrew Goodwin, DANCING IN THE DISTRACTION FACTORY, 1992.)

Research : Steve Archer 'How To Study Music Videos'

Steve Archer wrote an article in Media Magazine in 2004 in which he suggests five essential criteria which should help you to evaluate music videos.

Pessimists often complain that music video television has made pop superficially image-based. But my description of MTV and music video in MediaMag 6 failed to address what is still its most central and significant element, beyond the control of MTV, Viacom and Motorola: the appeal and power of pop sounds!

I’d like to suggest that the sounds are the basis of a process of visualisation that serve to enhance, not restrict, the original pop sound effect. Pop music theorist Andrew Goodwin claims that a good music video is:

"..a clip that responds to the pleasures of music, and in which that music is made visual, either in new ways or in ways that accentuate existing visual associations."
(Dancing in the Distraction Factory 1992)

If we accept the theory that pop songs on their own are not enough to create sufficient meaning and pleasure in the audience, the ‘added value’ of star image created by CD covers, live performance and music videos can be enough to inspire the consumer to buy into the whole intensely romantic myth of it all – and therefore actually buy the pop music. 

Certainly, the whole music business is sustained by the few star guarantees of profit in an unstable market. This maybe explains the somewhat fetishistic behaviour of fans who will buy the CD even if they can easily get the tracks for free on some P2P provider – we want all the packaging, the sacrosanct details in the booklet, the assurance it really belongs to us, not just the ‘stacking up’ of sounds that is the song itself. 

However, I am keen to keep these sounds as the primary pleasure and driving force of the music industry. This focus, therefore, is reflected in the order of my ‘Top Five Things to Look for’ when deciding if a music video is any good. 

Five things to look for …

I’ve turned the ideas in Goodwin’s book, Dancing in the Distraction Factory, into checklist form for you to test out on the current crop of music videos. 

At number 1 ... 

‘Thought Beats’ or seeing the sounds in your head

The basis for visualising images comes from a psychological process called synaesthesia, where you picture sounds in your mind’s eye. This idea is absolutely central to understanding music video as they build on the soundtrack’s visual associations in order to connect with the audience and provide that additional pleasure. 

To use this approach you need to start with the music, sorting out the way the song works, taking into account the way it has been stacked up with sound. To begin, lyrics don’t need to be analysed word for word like a poem but rather considered for the way they introduce a general feeling or mood. Very rarely do song lyrics have a coherent meaning that can be simply read off; but they are important in at least creating a sense of subject matter. So key phrases or lines (and especially those repeated in the chorus) will have a part to play in the kind of visuals associated with the song. 

Here, Roland Barthes’ theory of the ‘grain of voice’ is relevant – this sees the singing voice more as an expressive instrument, personal, unique even, to the singer, like a fingerprint, and therefore able to create associations in itself. The voice of a song may even possess trademarks that work hand-in-hand with the star image – so Michael Jackson’s yelp is a trademark sound that immediately sets him apart from other singers.

Finally, if songs are stories, then the singer is the storyteller and this obviously makes music videos stand out on TV, as they feature a first person mode of address rather than the invisible ‘fourth wall’ of television narration. 

Goodwin interestingly compares pop singers to stand-up comics in the way the personal trademark or signature dominates the performance. The music – or arrangement of the song, including instrumentation, the mix and effects, including samples – generally works with the lyrics and grain of voice. Generally we can look at key sounds, like the tempo (or speed of the song) and structure of the song in terms of verse and chorus. To give an example of how instruments can create visual associations, the slow twang of the steel guitar could create geographically-based visual associations from the Deep South of the US – a desert plain, a small town, one road out, men chewing tobacco … We all share a memory bank of popular culture imagery (intertextuality), a sense of shared cultural history without which these references would make no sense. Places, people, feelings, situations leading to mini-narratives – all these can be summoned from the sounds of popular music. 

These visualisations can arise from more personal, individual responses, sometimes even tied to a place or part of your own autobiography, the specific details of your life story and emotions. A combination of these shared and personal images tied to the words and instrumentation form the basis of music video creativity. 

At number 2 … 

Narrative and performance

Songs rarely tell complete narratives; we are used to studying them with other visual texts like film. The narrative fuzz in songs affects the way stories are used in music video representations of a song’s meaning. So, often we get the suggestion of a story, a hint at some kind of drama unfolding. 

There is another important reason why music videos should avoid a classic realist narrative, and that is their role in advertising. 

Music videos need to have repeatability built in to them. We need to be able to watch them repeatedly in a more casual way, with a looser approach to their storytelling. I’d suggest that more important than narrative is the way that performance is used in video clips, a point I’ll look at again in number 3. Often, music videos will cut between a narrative and a performance of the song by the band. Additionally, a carefully choreographed dance might be a part of the artist’s performance or an extra aspect of the video designed to aid visualisation and the ‘repeatability’ factor. Sometimes, the artist (especially the singer) will be a part of the story, acting as narrator and participant at the same time. But it is the lip-sync close-up and the mimed playing of instruments that remains at the heart of music videos, as if to assure us that the band really can kick it. 

Remember that pop music is a romantic art, all about truth, talent, and magic, so we need to believe in the authenticity of the performance first and foremost. The supposed individual and original qualities of these performers leads me to my next point, the source of all profit in the business … the star!

At number 3 … 

The star image

The music business relies on the relatively few big name stars to fund its activities; it usually fails to connect with popular audiences – only about one in ten acts put out by the industry actually makes any money. Therefore, what we can describe as the meta-narrative of the star image will have an important part to play in the music video production process. 

Meta-narrative is a term that describes the development of the star image over time, the stories that surround a particular artist. 

Michael Jackson – a mini case study

(Note : this article was written before Jackson's death)

Michael Jackson’s meta-narrative has been a long, sometimes difficult journey and one he has lost control of in recent years. 

There have been a few crucial moments in Jackson’s meta-narrative of pop stardom. The first was the successful move from being one of a group – even if acknowledged as its central talent – as child member of The Jackson 5, to becoming a solo artist. 

He was then able to negotiate one of the most successful solo careers ever through developing both his trademark sound and image. The ground-breaking music videos for Thriller and Beat It were an important part of this mega-stardom. 

At some point in the 90s, though, this meta-narrative took a wrong turn and his unique ‘star image’ became ‘freakish’ and self-indulgent; we are reminded that this child star has never grown up. Thus, the Jackson talent, his natural birthright it seems, becomes the reason for his adult weirdness. His younger self – black, funky, energetic – is constantly held up to condemn his current abnormality – withdrawn, of no ethnicity, over-produced to the point of ceasing to exist. And yet, all this means he is still talked about, the object of mass media fascination and so, in a very real sense, still a star. Whether the most recent allegations of child abuse will finally render that stardom invalid remains to be seen.

Meta-narratives of star image are not simply a matter of manipulation, but a dialogue or negotiation of what the music business asserts about their star, and what we accept! Still, in each new video, Michael Jackson tries to regain control over his meta-narrative but he can’t just switch off all the different associations he’s accumulated during his career, whether good or bad. So music videos can best be seen as one of the most important ways that the image of the artist is ‘managed’. 

At number 4 … 

Three ways in which music videos relate visuals to the song

We can identify three ways in which music videos work to support or promote the song. These are illustration, amplification and disjuncture and I find them extremely useful in attempting to generalise the effects of individual music videos. 

• Music videos can illustrate the meaning of lyrics and genre, providing a sometimes over literal set of images. Here, then, is the most straightforward technique and the classic example of visualisation, with everything in the music video based on the source of the pop song. 

• However, as with all advertising, the most persistent type of video adds to the value of the song. Amplification is seen as the mark of the true music video Auteur, the director as artist, and an increasingly common way to view music video creatives (VH-1’s Best 100 Videos clearly placed Spike Jonze in the Auteur category with his work always amplifying the original song’s meaning and effect, usually through surreal humour). Crucially, though, and what separates it from disjuncture, is the fact that amplification music videos retain a link with the song and work to enhance or develop ideas, rather than fundamentally changing them.

• Disjuncture is a term used to describe those music videos that (normally intentionally) seem to work by ignoring the original song and creating a whole new set of meanings. This is quite a radical technique and used by arty bands in order to assert their difference and originality. Usually, disjuncture videos of this type don’t make a lot of sense and may be based on abstract imagery. For example in Spike Jonze’s video for Daft Punk’s ‘Da Funk’ we see a man with a dog’s head and his arm in a cast walking round New York, ignored by all, with dialogue completely unrelated to the song itself. Sometimes though, disjuncture videos are just bad, ill-conceived and self-indulgent mistakes. 

And finally at number 5 ... 

Technical aspects of music video

The last really essential aspect of music video to study is technical. This includes camerawork, movement and angle, mise-en-scène, editing, and sound. 

It is important to remember the more general features of music videos already mentioned when trying to work out the technical effects, especially those which are post-production, effects. Broadly, the technical conventions can be summed up as follows: 

1. Speed! 

Speed is visualised by camera movement, fast editing (montage) and digital effects.

Camera movement is often motivated by running, dancing and walking performers.

Fast-cutting and montage editing creates a visually decentred experience necessary for music video consumption, with the images occasionally moving so fast that they are impossible to understand on first viewing and thus need to be viewed several times (repeatability). 

Post-production digital effects – a staple of music video where images can be colorized, multiple split screens appear, and so on, all to complicate and intrigue, providing pleasure again and again. 

Not all camera movement is about speed though and some use slow pace through dissolves or static shots. This kind of editing – like Sinead O’Conner’s ‘Nothing Compares 2 U’ – is striking and effective in setting the song apart from the hustle and bustle of most pop activity. 

2. Meat! 

The meat of most music videos is the cut to the close-up of the singer’s face. This is because the voice is seen as the most important part of pop music. 

3. Beats! 

Often, the video will try and represent the music through the use of the cut to go with the beat or key rhythm. This is called 'cutting to the beat'.

4. Lighting and colour 

...may also be used to emphasise key moments in the song, using methods from lighting live performances for dramatic effect. Colour may be used to show a development in the song, going from colour to black and white or vice versa when the chorus comes in. Equally, any change in the mise-en-scène or camerawork can signal the same type of thing.

5. Mise-en-scène 

Obviously the setting for music videos is important, often to guarantee the authenticity of the clip rather than anything else. So mise-en-scène for many music videos is the concert hall or rehearsal room to emphasise the realness of the performance or the grit and practice that goes into attaining star quality. Increasingly, CGI is used, especially for dance songs, which don’t rely so much on being ‘real’ like rock, soul and rap acts. 

Steve Archer : Media Magazine 2004

Two Step Flow - Audience Theory

Uses and Gratifications - Audience Theory

Cultivation Theory - Audience Theory

Reception Theory - Audience Theory

Hypodermic Needle Theory - Audience Theory

Research: Features Of Music Videos

 

 In this task we were asked to watch music videos on Vevo and find the common features throughout the videos that you have watched and write down notes for them particular videos as well. Below you can see a picture of my notes and the common features that I have found within music videos.

The 6 main features are:

1. The cuts of the video stick to the cuts of the music- This is a key feature because all music videos stick to the cut of the music.


2.Lighting and colour sticks with the mood of the video and song- This is a key feature that is also in most music videos. The lighting and colour of the video sticks with the mood of the song.


3. Rap music has a lot more cuts becasue there is more happening in the lyrics- This is in all rap videos as the rap videos have a lot more lyrics than a normal song.


4. The video matches the things that are being said in the lyrics- This is true as well because as the artist in the video says the lyrics then it is likely that the lyrics will be the same than what is being said.


5. Pop music has a lot of mid shots that aim at the artists face- This is a fact because most pop music is of the people singing their own song so the face is usually being shown.


6.In some videos slow motion is used to emphasize something going wrong- This is true for the Imagine Dragons videos because their music is slow anyway so it works out for the video to be slow as well.

Research: A Timeline Of Popular Music

In this task I was asked to research the different types of music and how the music industry has changed with the introduction of technology. I did this using tiki-toki which meant I was able to make a timeline and put all of the different dates in to it.

Research : The UK's Digital Music Landscape

BPI stands for the British Phonographic Industry.

The BPI represents the UK’s recorded music industry, which is one of the most exciting and thriving music sectors in the world. 

British artists account for one in eight albums purchased by fans around the globe.

As a trade body, they champion the interests of their membership which includes more than 300 independent music companies and the UK’s major record companies – Universal Music, Sony Music, and Warner Music. 

Together, BPI’s members account for 85% of all music sold in the UK.
BPI organises the BRIT Awards show and the Classic BRIT Awards show.

The BPI publishes a range of documents in relation to the music industry within the UK.

CLICK HERE to open the BPI's 2013 report titled ' Digital Music Nation'.

Research : Music Experience and Behaviour In Young People

The University of Hertfordshire carried out research into ways in which young people aged 14-24 engaged with music.

Although a little out of date this research still makes interesting reading for you.

• Access the document by CLICKING HERE and take some time to read throughout the findings.

• How do the findings of this research compare to your own 'music experience' as a young person?

The computer is no longer their main entertainment hub in the past 2 years it has been superseded by the mp3 player. 65% listen to music on their mp3 player/iPod every day. By comparison, and only 18%% use their CD player on a daily basis. 

This is not true for me as the main way that i listen to music is still on the computer. The second way I listen to my music would be on my phone so it still wouldn't be correct. It states that the iPod is now the most used way to listen to music but this will change as technology changes as well.

Music is no longer most popular entertainment type. It has now been superseded by Internet access 

This is very true because there are now a lot more things to do than listen to music. For example you can play on games consoles and other things like that. You may want to listen to music as you do that but it is unlikely that it would be the first choice of something to do now that there is so many different things that can be done instead. 

Advanced Portfolio - How Is It Assessed?

In order to achieve the highest grade possible for your coursework it is important that you understand how it is marked.

You will receive a total mark out of 100 for your Advanced Portfolio. Grade boundaries work out (roughly) as follows:

A grade = 80+

B grade = 70+

C grade = 60+

D grade = 50+

E grade = 40+

The mark is broken down into 3 areas:

Research and Planning = 20 marks

Construction = 60 marks (Music Video 40, CDD 10, MMA 10)

Evaluation = 20 marks

How to Reach Level 4

Your research and planning has to meet the following criteria to be deemed as level 4.

• Planning and research evidence will be complete and detailed. This means for your main task and your 2 ancillary tasks.
• There is excellent research into similar products. Again, you have to have evidence of carrying out research into existing music videos, CD digipaks, music magazine advertisements or artist websites.
• There is excellent research into a potential target audience. This has to happen after you have chosen your artist but before you start the planning of your products.
• There is excellent work on shotlists, layouts, scripting and storyboarding. You will need to have this for all 3 components of your portfolio.
• There is excellent organisation of actors, locations, costumes and props. The quality of your actors 'acting'is not marked but you need to bear in mind that the people you choose need to be comfortable in performing for the camera.
• Time management is excellent. This is seen by the trail of posts on your blog and reinforced the importance of managing your time effectively.
• There is excellent skill in the use of digital technology or ICT in the presentation of research and planning. This links to the idea of making your blog as media-rich as possible.
• There are excellent communication skills. Your blog isn't assessed for the quality of your use of English but real weaknesses in this area can affect your mark.
• There is an excellent level of care in the presentation of the research and planning. 

To get a level 4 for the construction element of your coursework then bear the following in mind. 

You get a mark out of 40 for your music video's construction and then a mark out of 10 for the construction of each of your ancillary products. 

This actually makes it easier to score highly IF your products are of a high standard. 

Level 4 candidates are expected to demonstrate excellence in the creative use of most of the following technical skills:

• shooting material appropriate to the task set; including controlled use of the camera, attention to framing, variety of shot sizes and close attention to mise en scene
• editing so that meaning is apparent to the viewer and making selective and appropriate use of shot transitions, captions and other effects
• recording and editing sound with images appropriately.

The evaluation is critical to your success. It is important that you know the questions in advance so that you can relate to these as your production work develops. There are only 4 questions as opposed to the 7 you had to answer for AS. They are:

1. In what ways does your media product use, develop or challenge forms and conventions of real media products?
2. How effective is the combination of your main product and ancillary texts?
3. What have you learned from your audience feedback?
4. How did you use media technologies in the construction and research, planning and evaluation stages?

In order to reach Level 4 the following criteria have to be met:

• There is excellent skill in the use of digital technology or ICT in the evaluation.
• There is excellent understanding of the forms and conventions used in the productions.
• There is excellent understanding of the role and use of new media in various stages of the production.
• There is excellent understanding of the combination of main product and ancillary texts.
• There is excellent understanding of the significance of audience feedback.
• There is excellent skill in choice of form in which to present the evaluation.
• There is excellent ability to communicate.

Advanced Portfolio - FAQs

For your Advanced Portfolio you have to produce a promotional package for a contemporary album of your choice which includes the following 3 media texts:

1. A music video for a song from your chosen album (video : the main task)
2. A CD Digipack design for your chosen album (print : the first ancillary task)
3. A music magazine advertisement for your chosen album (print : the second ancillary task)

Frequently Asked Questions

Can I work in a group?

No. You have to work individually.

What does 'contemporary' mean when choosing an album?

For the purposes of this task 'contemporary' means released from June 2011 onwards.

Can I choose any album from June 2011 onwards as the focus for my coursework?

No. You need to choose an album by an artist who is relatively unknown. We will discuss what this means at a later point in time.

What is a CD Digipack?

Don't worry. We will research this in due course.

I have already decided on my album. Is this OK?

No. Undecide quickly! You will not be asked to make a decision regarding your album choice until we have undertaken the research stages of the coursework.

I don't know how to use Adobe Photoshop. Will this mean I am disadvantaged when it comes to producing the two ancillary tasks?

No. You will be shown how to use Adobe Photoshop when this is required. However, all of the PCs and Macs have this programme available for you to use and it would be a good idea to try to learn a little more about how it works independently.

Me As A Consumer of Music

What?

The genres of music that I like are rap music and pop music.

Who?

I listen to a lot of different artists from the music industry. The main people that I listen to are artists that are well known and are in the top 40 for the UK. I listen to this type of music because I know that they will be good songs if they were voted to be the highest in the UK.

Why?

I listen to the top 40 because I know the songs will be good that are in the top 40 and if the songs and artists weren't good then they wouldn't have deserved a spot in the top 40.

Where?When?

I listen to music nearly everyday because of the way I have set my computer up. I only really listen to music whilst I am in my room and maybe whilst doing homework. I don't really listen to the music a lot though. 



How?

I listen to the music using media player which makes it a lot easier to listen to a lot of playlists at once. This means that I can play a lot of different artists and types of music at once.